Egypt's Historical Timeline
A Cradle of Civilization Along the Nile
Egypt's history spans over 5,000 years, making it one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations. From the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt to the grandeur of pharaonic dynasties, foreign conquests, and modern independence, the Nile River has been the lifeblood shaping this extraordinary heritage. Ancient Egyptians developed writing, monumental architecture, and complex religious systems that influenced subsequent cultures profoundly.
This timeless land preserves its past in pyramids, temples, and artifacts, offering travelers an unparalleled journey through human achievement and resilience across epochs.
Predynastic and Early Dynastic Period
Along the Nile's fertile banks, early agricultural communities emerged, transitioning from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled farmers. Innovations in pottery, tools, and irrigation marked this era, with regional kingdoms forming in Upper (southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt. Sites like Naqada reveal sophisticated burial practices and the beginnings of hieroglyphic writing.
King Narmer (c. 3100 BC) unified Egypt, establishing the first dynasty and Memphis as the capital. This unification symbolized the red-and-white crown merging, laying the foundation for pharaonic rule and the divine kingship concept that defined Egyptian society for millennia.
Old Kingdom: Age of the Pyramids
The Old Kingdom represented Egypt's classical era of stability and monumental construction. Pharaohs like Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure built the Giza Pyramids, engineering marvels that served as tombs and symbols of eternal life. The solar boat pits and Sphinx underscore the era's astronomical knowledge and artistic mastery.
A centralized bureaucracy flourished under divine pharaohs, with advances in mathematics, medicine, and art. However, climate changes and power struggles led to the kingdom's decline, ushering in a period of fragmentation. Saqqara's Step Pyramid by Djoser marked the evolution from mastabas to true pyramids.
First Intermediate Period
Political chaos ensued as central authority weakened, leading to rival dynasties in Heracleopolis and Thebes. Famine, civil war, and nomarchs (provincial governors) gaining power characterized this turbulent time. Literature from the period, like the "Instructions of Merikare," reflects moral and philosophical introspection amid instability.
Despite disorder, cultural continuity persisted through local temple building and artistic production. The period ended with Mentuhotep II reuniting Egypt from Thebes, restoring order and paving the way for the Middle Kingdom's renaissance.
Middle Kingdom: Renaissance and Expansion
Mentuhotep II's successors revitalized Egypt, with pharaohs like Senusret III fortifying borders and expanding into Nubia. Literature, such as the "Story of Sinuhe," and realistic portraiture flourished, reflecting a more humanistic art style. Fayum's irrigation projects boosted agriculture and prosperity.
The kingdom traded with Punt and the Levant, importing luxury goods. However, Hyksos incursions from Asia weakened the delta region, leading to decline. The period's legacy includes the Kahun workers' village, revealing everyday life in pyramid-building communities.
Second Intermediate Period: Hyksos Rule
Semitic Hyksos invaders established the 15th Dynasty in the north, introducing chariots, composite bows, and bronze weapons that revolutionized warfare. Native Egyptian dynasties persisted in Thebes, fostering resentment and cultural exchange.
The Kamose and Ahmose campaigns expelled the Hyksos, founding the 18th Dynasty. This era's Avaris excavations show a multicultural society blending Canaanite and Egyptian elements, influencing later New Kingdom military tactics.
New Kingdom: Empire of the Pharaohs
Egypt's imperial zenith under pharaohs like Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramses II. Vast conquests created an empire from Nubia to Syria, funding grand temples at Karnak, Luxor, and Abu Simbel. The Battle of Kadesh (1274 BC) between Ramses II and the Hittites ended in the world's first recorded peace treaty.
Akhenaten's Amarna revolution briefly introduced monotheism, followed by Tutankhamun's restoration. The Valley of the Kings preserved royal tombs, while Deir el-Medina housed artisans. Sea Peoples' invasions contributed to the kingdom's eventual fragmentation.
Third Intermediate Period
Division between Libyan rulers in the north (22nd-23rd Dynasties) and Theban priests in the south marked this era of decline. The 25th Dynasty saw Nubian kings like Taharqa reviving Old Kingdom traditions, building pyramids at Nuri and fostering a cultural renaissance.
Assyrian invasions culminated in the sack of Thebes (663 BC), ending native rule temporarily. Tanis and Bubastis served as capitals, with artifacts like the Bubastis treasures illustrating artistic continuity amid political turmoil.
Late Period: Saite Revival and Persian Conquest
The 26th Dynasty under Psamtik I expelled Assyrians, ushering in a Saite renaissance with Greek mercenaries and renewed trade. Necho II's canal project linked the Nile to the Red Sea, foreshadowing the Suez Canal. Persian invasions (525 BC) under Cambyses II made Egypt a satrapy, though native revolts persisted.
The last pharaoh, Nectanebo II, fortified temples before Alexander the Great's conquest (332 BC). This period's Elephantine island papyri document multicultural interactions, blending Egyptian, Greek, and Persian influences.
Ptolemaic Kingdom: Greco-Egyptian Fusion
Alexander founded Alexandria, which became a Hellenistic cultural hub. Ptolemy I established the dynasty, blending Greek and Egyptian traditions. The Library and Lighthouse of Alexandria symbolized intellectual and architectural prowess. Cleopatra VII's alliances with Rome marked the era's end.
Temples like Edfu and Philae continued pharaonic styles under Ptolemaic patronage. The Rosetta Stone, inscribed in three scripts, became key to deciphering hieroglyphs. This multicultural period enriched Egyptian art with Hellenistic motifs.
Roman and Byzantine Egypt
After Cleopatra's defeat, Egypt became Rome's breadbasket, exporting grain via Alexandria's port. Christianity spread from the 1st century, with St. Mark founding the Coptic Church. Diocletian's persecutions and Constantine's conversion transformed religious landscapes.
Byzantine rule saw the construction of basilicas like St. Catherine's Monastery. The Arab conquest (641 AD) by Amr ibn al-As ended classical antiquity, but Coptic traditions endured, influencing early Islamic art and administration.
Islamic Egypt: Caliphates to Mamluks
Fatimid (969-1171) and Ayyubid (1171-1250) dynasties established Cairo as a center of learning, with Al-Azhar University founded in 970. Saladin's victories against Crusaders preserved Islamic Egypt. Mamluk sultans (1250-1517) repelled Mongols at Ain Jalut (1260) and built magnificent mosques like Sultan Hassan.
Cairo's Citadel and markets thrived as trade hubs. This era's architectural legacy includes intricate arabesques and madrasas, blending Persian, Turkish, and local styles while preserving Coptic communities.
Ottoman, Modern, and Contemporary Egypt
Ottoman rule (1517-1805) integrated Egypt into the empire, with Muhammad Ali Pasha (1805-1848) modernizing through industrialization and the Suez Canal (1869). British occupation (1882-1956) followed, ending with Nasser's 1952 revolution and 1956 nationalization.
From Sadat's peace with Israel (1979) to the 2011 Arab Spring, Egypt navigated regional conflicts and economic reforms. Today, it balances ancient heritage with modern aspirations, preserving sites like the Grand Egyptian Museum.
Architectural Heritage
Ancient Egyptian Architecture
Monumental stone structures defining Egypt's pharaonic legacy, emphasizing eternity and divine order through massive scale and precise alignment.
Key Sites: Giza Pyramids (Khufu’s Great Pyramid, 146m tall), Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara, Karnak Temple Complex (largest religious site).
Features: Limestone and granite blocks, corbelled roofs, obelisks, hypostyle halls with papyrus columns, astronomical orientations.
New Kingdom Temples
Rock-cut and freestanding temples showcasing imperial power and religious devotion during Egypt's empire era.
Key Sites: Abu Simbel (Ramses II’s colossi), Luxor Temple (Amun-Ra processions), Hatshepsut’s Mortuary Temple at Deir el-Bahri.
Features: Pylons with reliefs, colossal statues, sacred lakes, axis-aligned layouts symbolizing the Nile’s path.
Greco-Roman Architecture
Hellenistic and Roman influences merging with Egyptian styles in coastal and delta regions, creating hybrid wonders.
Key Sites: Philae Temple (Isis cult, relocated), Kom Ombo (dual temple), Pompey’s Pillar in Alexandria.
Features: Corinthian columns, mammisi birth houses, Roman basilicas, lighthouse-inspired obelisks, syncretic iconography.
Coptic Architecture
Early Christian basilicas and monasteries blending Roman, Byzantine, and native Egyptian elements in monastic communities.
Key Sites: Hanging Church in Coptic Cairo, St. Anthony’s Monastery (world’s oldest), White Monastery at Sohag.
Features: Basilical plans, mud-brick domes, woven palm roofs, frescoes depicting biblical scenes with pharaonic motifs.
Fatimid and Ayyubid Islamic Architecture
Early Islamic mosques and palaces introducing arabesque designs and minarets to Egypt’s architectural vocabulary.
Key Sites: Al-Azhar Mosque (founded 970), Ibn Tulun Mosque (largest in Cairo), Citadel of Saladin.
Features: Stucco mihrabs, kufic inscriptions, horseshoe arches, courtyards with ablution fountains, geometric tilework.
Mamluk and Ottoman Architecture
Peak of Islamic Cairo’s splendor with madrasas, mausoleums, and sabils reflecting sultanate patronage and trade wealth.
Key Sites: Sultan Hassan Mosque (14th century), Qalawun Complex, Muhammad Ali Mosque in Citadel.
Features: Ablaq masonry, muqarnas vaults, marble inlays, pencil-shaped minarets, ornate wooden mashrabiya screens.
Must-Visit Museums
🎨 Art Museums
Showcases ancient to modern Egyptian art, with mummies hall and royal jewelry collections highlighting artistic evolution.
Entry: €10 | Time: 3-4 hours | Highlights: Royal mummies exhibit, Tutankhamun’s treasures, Coptic textiles.
Housed in a former mansion, displays Greco-Roman sculptures, Pharaonic reliefs, and Hellenistic mosaics from the region.
Entry: €5 | Time: 2 hours | Highlights: Tanagra figurines, Pompey’s Pillar artifacts, underwater finds from Aboukir Bay.
World’s largest collection of Islamic artifacts, spanning Egypt’s Fatimid to Ottoman eras with ceramics, metalwork, and manuscripts.
Entry: €7 | Time: 2-3 hours | Highlights: Astrolabes, lusterware, restored Quran illuminations post-2014 fire.
Preserves early Christian art including icons, textiles, and stone carvings from Egypt’s transition to Christianity.
Entry: €5 | Time: 2 hours | Highlights: Nag Hammadi codices replicas, Fayum portraits, monastic relics.
🏛️ History Museums
Iconic repository of pharaonic artifacts, from predynastic tools to New Kingdom treasures, in a neoclassical building.
Entry: €12 | Time: 4-5 hours | Highlights: Tutankhamun’s gold mask, Narmer Palette, Akhenaten statues.
Focuses on Theban history with artifacts from Karnak, Valley of the Kings, and Ramses II’s court.
Entry: €10 | Time: 2-3 hours | Highlights: Akhenaten family statues, Amarna period art, illuminated by Nile views.
Entry: €15 | Time: 5+ hours | Highlights: Sphinx atrium, hanging obelisk, immersive pharaonic halls.
Displays colossal statues from ancient Memphis, Egypt’s first capital, including Ramses II’s giant figures.
Entry: €8 | Time: 2 hours | Highlights: Alabaster Sphinx, Ptah temple ruins, sound-and-light shows.
🏺 Specialized Museums
Two museums detail the temples’ relocation during Aswan Dam construction, with Nubian artifacts and engineering exhibits.
Entry: €6 | Time: 1-2 hours | Highlights: UNESCO salvage operation models, Ramses II statues, Nubian ethnography.
Former residence of Muhammad Ali’s grandson, showcasing Khedival-era Islamic art, clocks, and hunting trophies.
Entry: €4 | Time: 1-2 hours | Highlights: Persian carpets, European chandeliers, Nile island gardens.
Explores Nubian culture from ancient kingdoms to modern displacement, with traditional houses and rock inscriptions.
Entry: €5 | Time: 2 hours | Highlights: Temple models, pharaonic Nubian art, Aswan High Dam impacts.
Traces Egypt’s communication history from pharaonic couriers to modern stamps, with philatelic rarities.
Entry: €3 | Time: 1 hour | Highlights: Napoleon-era postmarks, Suez Canal stamps, interactive telegraph exhibits.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites
Egypt's Timeless Treasures
Egypt boasts 7 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, encompassing ancient pharaonic monuments, Christian monasteries, and Islamic architectural gems. These protected areas represent humanity's earliest achievements in engineering, religion, and urban planning, drawing millions to witness their enduring splendor.
- Memphis and its Necropolis (1979): Ancient capital and vast cemetery including Giza Pyramids, Saqqara, and Dahshur. The Great Pyramid of Giza, the only surviving Wonder of the Ancient World, stands as a testament to Old Kingdom ingenuity, aligned with cardinal points and Orion's Belt.
- Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis (1979): Luxor and Karnak temples on the east bank, Valley of the Kings and Hatshepsut’s temple on the west. Over 60 royal tombs, including Tutankhamun’s, reveal exquisite wall paintings and burial goods spanning the New Kingdom.
- Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae (1979): Relocated temples due to Aswan Dam flooding, featuring Ramses II’s colossi at Abu Simbel and Isis temple at Philae. These sites highlight Nubian-Egyptian interactions and 1960s international engineering feats.
- Islamic Cairo (1979): Fatimid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk core with over 600 monuments, including Al-Azhar Mosque and Citadel. The labyrinthine streets preserve medieval Islamic urbanism, markets, and mausoleums blending architectural styles.
- St Catherine Area (2002): Sinai’s oldest continuously inhabited monastery, founded 6th century by Emperor Justinian, housing ancient manuscripts and icons. Mount Sinai (Jebel Musa) adds biblical significance as Moses’ revelation site.
- Wadi Al-Hitan (Whale Valley) (2005): Fayum Depression fossil site with 40-million-year-old whale skeletons, illustrating early whale evolution from land to sea mammals. Unique paleontological window into Eocene marine life.
- Ahmadabad Historical City (potential, under review): While not yet listed, historic Islamic sites like the Blue Mosque contribute to Egypt’s rich Ottoman heritage, showcasing Persian-influenced domes and minarets.
Ancient Warfare & Modern Conflict Heritage
Ancient Battlefields & Fortifications
Battle of Kadesh Sites
The 1274 BC clash between Ramses II and Hittite king Muwatalli II, history’s largest chariot battle, depicted on temple walls at Abydos and Luxor.
Key Sites: Kadesh (near modern Homs, Syria, but commemorated in Egypt), Ramesseum mortuary temple reliefs, Hittite-Egyptian treaty stelae.
Experience: Guided temple tours interpreting battle scenes, reconstructions at military museums, annual reenactment discussions.
Nubian Fortresses
Middle Kingdom chain of 18 fortresses defending against Nubian incursions, showcasing early imperial defense strategies.
Key Sites: Buhen Fortress (vast mud-brick walls), Semna West (rock inscriptions), Uronarti island ruins.
Visiting: Boat tours on Lake Nasser, archaeological dives, exhibits on Hyksos-influenced weaponry.
Hyksos Invasion Legacy
1650 BC Asiatic conquest introducing horse-drawn chariots, preserved in Avaris excavations and expulsion narratives.
Key Sites: Tell el-Dab’a (Avaris palace), Ahmose I temple at Karnak, Delta chariot burials.
Programs: Virtual reality reconstructions, Hyksos artifact displays, lectures on cultural fusion.
Modern Conflicts Heritage
Battle of the Pyramids (1798)
Napoleon’s victory over Mamluks near Giza, opening Egypt to European influence and sparking Egyptology.
Key Sites: Embaba battlefield markers, Cairo Military Museum (French cannons), Rosetta Stone origin story.
Tours: Napoleonic history walks, artifact viewings, discussions on Orientalism’s impact.
Suez Canal Conflicts
1956 Crisis nationalization memorials and WWII North African Campaign sites along the strategic waterway.
Key Sites: Suez War Museum, El Alamein War Cemetery (Allied/Axis graves), Ismailia canal house.
Education: Interactive war exhibits, veteran oral histories, peace treaty commemorations.
1979 Peace Treaty Legacy
Camp David Accords ending Arab-Israeli wars, with memorials to Anwar Sadat and diplomatic history.
Key Sites: Sadat Assassination Memorial in Cairo, Sinai peace monuments, Sharm el-Sheikh conference centers.
Routes: Self-guided diplomacy trails, audio tours of key speeches, reconciliation exhibits.
Egyptian Art & Cultural Movements
The Eternal Art of the Nile
Egyptian art evolved over millennia, from rigid pharaonic canons symbolizing divine order to dynamic Greco-Roman fusions and intricate Islamic calligraphy. This visual language preserved religious beliefs, royal propaganda, and daily life, influencing global aesthetics from Renaissance Europe to modern design.
Major Artistic Movements
Old Kingdom Sculpture (c. 2686-2181 BC)
Idealized, eternal figures in hard stone emphasizing pharaohs’ divinity and ka (life force) preservation.
Masters: Craftsmen of Khafre statue, Menkaure triads, anonymous tomb sculptors.
Innovations: Frontal poses, cubic forms, inlaid eyes for lifelike gaze, hieroglyphic integration.
Where to See: Egyptian Museum (Khafre diorite statue), Giza causeways, Saqqara serdab chambers.
Amarna Art (c. 1353-1336 BC)
Akhenaten’s revolutionary style introducing naturalism and Aten worship in elongated, expressive forms.
Masters: Thutmose workshop (Nefertiti bust), anonymous Amarna artists.
Characteristics: Curvilinear bodies, intimate family scenes, solar disk motifs, gender fluidity.
Where to See: Neues Museum Berlin (Nefertiti), Egyptian Museum (Amarna boundary stelae), Karnak Open-Air Museum.
New Kingdom Tomb Art
Vivid wall paintings in Valley of the Kings depicting afterlife journeys and daily life vignettes.
Innovations: Books of the Dead illustrations, perspectival experiments, color symbolism (green for rebirth).
Legacy: Influenced Etruscan tomb painting, preserved Egyptian cosmology for modern study.
Where to See: KV62 (Tutankhamun), Deir el-Medina tombs, Luxor Museum replicas.
Ptolemaic and Roman Portraiture
Fayum mummy portraits blending Hellenistic realism with Egyptian funerary traditions in encaustic painting.
Masters: Anonymous Greco-Egyptian painters, Demetrios workshop.
Themes: Individual likenesses, youthful ideals, Roman toga drapery, wax-on-panel technique.
Where to See: Louvre (largest collection), British Museum, Getty Museum (Roman influences).
Coptic Art (4th-7th Century AD)
Early Christian iconography merging pharaonic motifs with Byzantine styles in textiles and ivories.
Masters: Bawit monastery artists, Akhmim tapestry weavers.
Impact: Animal interlace, saint portraits, monastic manuscripts, resistance to iconoclasm.
Where to See: Coptic Museum Cairo, Louvre Coptic wing, Monastery of Apa Jeremiah.
Islamic Calligraphy & Miniatures
Mamluk and Ottoman eras excelling in thuluth script and illuminated manuscripts adorning mosques and books.
Notable: Ibn Muqla styles, Qansuh al-Ghuri commissions, Ottoman floral borders.
Scene: Al-Azhar scriptoriums, vibrant blues/golds, Quranic harmony with architecture.
Where to See: Islamic Art Museum, Sultan Hassan ablutions, Dar al-Kutub library.
Cultural Heritage Traditions
- Moulid Festivals: Sufi saint commemorations with music, dance, and communal feasts, like the Moulid of Al-Sayyida Zainab in Cairo, blending Islamic devotion with pharaonic procession roots dating back centuries.
- Coptic Easter: Vibrant celebrations in Old Cairo with palm processions and dyed eggs, preserving 2,000-year-old rituals in hanging churches and marking spring renewal akin to ancient Osiris myths.
- Nubian Wedding Customs: Colorful henna ceremonies and Nile boat dances in Aswan villages, safeguarding endangered Nubian languages and motifs through songs passed orally for generations.
- Pharaonic Boat Processions: Modern revivals of Luxor’s Opet Festival, parading barques along the Nile, echoing New Kingdom rituals uniting Amun with his people in temple reenactments.
- Handicraft Guilds: Khan el-Khalili artisans continuing Mamluk-era metalwork, glassblowing, and papermaking, with techniques like Damascene inlaying gold on brass for intricate Islamic patterns.
- Sufi Whirling: Tanoura dancers in Cairo mosques performing meditative spins to flute music, a 13th-century Mevlevi tradition symbolizing spiritual ascent and cosmic harmony.
- Fellahin Agriculture: Traditional Nile farming with shaduf irrigation and date palm cultivation, maintaining ancient calendars and folk songs that celebrate seasonal cycles since pharaonic times.
- Bedouin Hospitality: Sinai desert customs of sharing mansaf meals and storytelling under stars, rooted in nomadic codes of honor and survival adapted from ancient caravan routes.
- Siwa Oasis Oracle Traditions: Berber descendants preserving Alexander the Great’s consultation site through dream interpretation and salt lake rituals, linking Greco-Roman and indigenous practices.
Historic Cities & Towns
Memphis
Egypt’s first capital founded c. 3100 BC, center of Ptah worship and Old Kingdom administration.
History: Unified under Narmer, declined after Thebes rise, excavated by Petrie in 19th century.
Must-See: Colossal Ramses II statue, Saqqara necropolis nearby, alabaster sphinx.
Thebes (Luxor)
New Kingdom imperial capital with temples rivaling the gods, thriving under Amenhotep III.
History: Expulsion of Hyksos, Akhenaten’s move to Amarna, Ramses restorations.
Must-See: Karnak’s hypostyle hall, Luxor Temple, Nile corniche sunsets.
Alexandria
Hellenistic metropolis founded by Alexander, blending cultures as Ptolemaic capital.
History: Library’s golden age, Roman lighthouse, Mamluk walls against Crusaders.
Must-See: Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa, Qaitbay Citadel.
Cairo
Islamic world’s cultural heart since Fatimids, nicknamed City of a Thousand Minarets.
History: Founded 969 AD, Mamluk patronage, Napoleon’s 1798 arrival.
Must-See: Citadel views, Khan el-Khalili bazaar, Coptic quarter churches.
Aswan
Nubian gateway with granite quarries supplying pharaonic obelisks.
History: Ptolemaic trade hub, 19th-century dam building, 1960s High Dam relocation.
Must-See: Philae temples, Nubian villages, felucca sails at sunset.
Fustat (Old Cairo)
Arab conquest’s first capital, evolving into Coptic and Islamic heritage core.
History: Amr ibn al-As mosque 642 AD, Fatimid expansions, medieval Jewish quarter.
Must-See: Ben Ezra Synagogue, Hanging Church, Ibn Tulun Mosque courtyards.
Visiting Historical Sites: Practical Tips
Tickets & Passes
Egyptian Museum Pass covers major Cairo sites for €25, ideal for multi-day visits; individual pyramid tickets €10-15.
Students get 50% off with ISIC card; book Luxor hot air balloon rides via Tiqets for bundled temple access.
Combine with Nile cruise passes for Valley of the Kings and Karnak savings.
Guided Tours & Apps
Egyptologist guides mandatory for Valley of the Kings tombs; audio apps like VoiceMap provide hieroglyph translations.
Small-group tours for Giza Sphinx focus on engineering secrets; free walking apps for Islamic Cairo’s mosques.
Virtual reality tours available for restricted sites like Tutankhamun’s tomb.
Best Timing
Visit pyramids early morning (8 AM) to beat heat and crowds; temples close 4-5 PM, evenings offer sound-and-light shows.
Avoid midday summer sun; winter (Oct-Apr) ideal for Luxor hikes, Ramadan timings shift site hours.
Nile feluccas best at dawn for temple silhouettes.
Photography Rules
No-flash photos allowed in open sites like Karnak; €5 permit for professional cameras inside museums.
Drones prohibited near pyramids; respect no-photo zones in active mosques and Coptic churches during prayers.
Share respectfully, crediting Egypt’s heritage.
Accessibility
Giza has ramps and electric carts; Luxor temples offer wheelchair paths, but tomb stairs limited.
Cairo museums improving with elevators; Aswan ferries accommodate mobility aids for Philae.
Audio descriptions for visually impaired at Grand Egyptian Museum.
History with Cuisine
Nile cruises pair temple visits with pharaonic-inspired meals like duck molokhia; Cairo’s Fatimid cooking classes in historic khans.
Nubian fish tagines after Aswan dams tour; museum cafes serve koshari near Egyptian Museum.
Bedouin teas during Sinai monastery hikes.